Table 2

Results of the hierarchical linear models (HLM) for each outcome over the 2-year study period.
Healthcare costs ($000)Pain (0–10 scale)Opioid use (proportion using)
Estimate (SE)p-valueEstimate (SE)p-valueEstimate (SE)p-value
Intercept0.9960 (0.019)< .0014.2556 (0.031)< .0010.3254 (0.005)< .001
Time-0.0256 (0.001)< .001-0.0004 (0.000)< .001-0.0018 (0.000)< .001
CIH user0.0599 (0.031)0.0540.1795 (0.044)< .001-0.0394 (0.005)< .001
CIH x time0.0125 (0.001)< .0010.0008 (0.000)< .0010.0051 (0.000)< .001
CIH start-0.0510 (0.013)< .001-0.3527 (0.033)< .0010.0598 (0.004)< .001
CIH start x time-0.0003 (0.001)0.5840.0001 (0.000)0.047-0.0044 (0.000)< .001

Random effects parameters
Facility intercept0.0239 (0.002)< .0010.2433 (0.034)< .0010.0058 (0.001)< .001
Individual intercept0.3352 (0.007)< .0012.7490 (0.061)< .0010.1399 (0.003)< .001
Individual slope0.0000 (0.000)< .0010.0000 (0.000)< .0010.0003 (0.000)< .001
Residual3.0325 (0.076)< .0016.9369 (0.100)< .0010.0732 (0.001)< .001
Estimated annual change (95% CI)-$637*
(-$1,023, -$247)
-0.34
(-0.40, -0.27)
0.76 (0.59, 0.93)
*In 2013 USD

Percentage point change