J Clin Epidemiol 2025 (Jan): 177: 111593

Table 1 Characteristics of the studies included in the systematic review

Characteristics Models development Internal validation External validation
Number of studies 24 studies 48 studiesa 4 studiesa
Number of models 82 models 128 models 6 models
Period of publication 1998 to 2022 2002 to 2023 2004 to 2013
Study design
 Prospective Studies 14 studies 34 studies 1 study
 Randomized Clinical Trial 10 studies 7 studies 2 studies
 Registry-Based Studies - 7 studies 1 study
Source of data
 Primary Care 3 studies 7 studies 1 study
 Secondary Care 9 studies 19 studies 2 studies
 Tertiary Care 4 studies 5 studies 1 study
 Not mentioned - 3 studies -
 Others 8 studies 14 studies -
Sample size, median [range] 218.5 [53 to 934] 349 [30 to 154,167] 196.5 [131 to 1652]
Outcomesb
 Pain 12 studies 17 studies 1 study
 Disability 16 studies 19 studies 3 studies
 Work-related outcomes 1 study 11 studies 1 study
 Quality of life 2 studies 5 studies -
 Global improvement 4 studies 11 studies -
 Others 4 studies 2 studies -
Country
 Europe 12 studies 22 studies -
 North America 7 studies 13 studies 3 studies
 Asia and Oceania 2 studies 13 studies 1 study
 South America 3 studies - -
Type of intervention
 Physiotherapyc 4 studies 9 studies -
 Exercises 6 studies 10 studies -
 Spinal manipulation 4 studies 12 studies -
 Cognitive Behavioural Program 3 studies 4 studies -
 Medicines 1 study 6 studies -
 Multidisciplinary programs 2 studies 4 studies 1 study
 Combined Therapies 3 studies 3 studies 2 studies
 Others 1 study - 1 study

a One study investigated the internal and external validity in the same study.

b The number of studies does not equal to the total number studies because some studies developed or validated predictions models for more than one outcome in the same study.

c Prediction models on physiotherapy which did not specify a specific treatment modality (eg, exercise).