Pain Reports 2025 (Dec 12); 11 (1): e1374

Figure 3.

Subgroup analysis of 14 cohort studies reporting early vs later chiropractic exposure and odds of initiating prescription opioids for noncancer spine pain (moderate credibility ⁶⁶; test of interaction, P < 0.001). CI, confidence interval; OR, odds ratio. Whedon, 2020a is for 1,394 patients with early receipt of chiropractic services in Connecticut; Whedon, 2020b is for 77,611 and 71,373 patients with early and later receipt of chiropractic services in Massachusetts; Whedon, 2020c is for 33,338 and 4,122 patients with early and later receipt of chiropractic services in New Hampshire; Whedon, 2022* is for 937 patients with receipt of chiropractic services 31 to 90 days after the index visit; Whedon, 2022** is for 258 patients with receipt of chiropractic services 91 to 120 days after the index visit.