Table 10

Brief Evidence Profile

Intervention	Overall findings
Spinal manipulation
Spinal manipulation and exercise versus Same exercise (1 RCT) (Evans et al., 2018) [33]	Spinal manipulation (1–2 sessions/week) over 12 weeks • Reduce pain intensity (low to moderate certainty evidence) • Do not provide additional benefit in improving function, quality of life, patient-reported improvement and patient-reported satisfaction (moderate certainty evidence) • Do not cause more adverse events than control (very low certainty evidence)
Spinal manipulation and exercise versus Sham and same exercise (1 RCT) (Selhorst et al., 2015) [22]	Spinal manipulation (2 sessions in total over one week) does not bring additional benefits in improving • Pain intensity (low to moderate certainty evidence) • Function (low certainty evidence) • Improvement (low certainty evidence) • Recurrence of symptoms (very low certainty evidence) • Health resources use (very low certainty evidence) And • And do not cause more adverse events than control (very low certainty evidence)
Group-based exercise
Group-based exercise, monthly personal tailored exercise and home-based exercise versus Monthly personal tailored exercise and home-based exercise (1 RCT) (Vitman et al., 2022) [39]	Group-based exercise (one session/week over 12 weeks) • Do not reduce LBP intensity (very low certainty evidence)
Group-based exercise versus No treatment (2 RCTs) (Fanucchi et al., 2009 [34]; M. Jones et al.; 2007 [35], M. A. Jones et al., 2007) [36]	Group-based progressive exercise provided at school for eight weeks • Reduce pain intensity (very low to low certainty evidence) ((Fanucchi et al., 2009 [34]; M. Jones et al.; 2007 [35], M. A. Jones et al., 2007) [36] • Do not improve absence from physical activity and school (very low to low certainty evidence) (M. Jones et al., 2007 [35]; M A. Jones et al., 2007) [36] • Do not improve well-being and feelings about school and life (very low to low certainty evidence) (Fanucchi et al., 2009) [34]
Group-based exercise versus Advice and individual training (1 non-randomized controlled trial) (Harringe et al., 2007) [40]	Group-based muscle control exercise over eight weeks • Reduce days with pain (very low certainty evidence) • Do not reduce maximum and median pain intensity (very low certainty evidence)
Whole-body vibration
Whole-body vibration and trunk stabilization exercise versus Trunk stabilization exercise (1 RCT) (Jung et al., 2020) [37]	Whole-body vibration (3 times per week over 12 weeks) • Do not reduce LBP intensity (very low certainty evidence)
Cognitive functional therapy
Cognitive functional therapy Versus No treatment (1 RCT) (Ng et al., 2015) [38]	Cognitive functional therapy over eight weeks • Reduce LBP intensity (very low certainty evidence) • Improve function (very low certainty evidence)
Multimodal care
Multimodal care, home exercise and education Versus Home exercise and education (1 RCT) (Ahlqwist et al., 2008) [32]	multimodal care (including supervised exercise; manual therapy and mechanical diagnostic therapy as needed) (1 session per week over 12 weeks) does not provided additional benefit in • Reducing pain intensity (very low certainty evidence) • Improving function (low certainty evidence) • Improving quality of life (very low certainty evidence)
Physiotherapist-led multimodal care (exercise, manual therapy, modalities for pain) Versus Physician-led care (including physiotherapy) (1 non-randomized controlled trial) (Selhorst et al., 2021) [41]	Physiotherapist-led care (exercise, manual therapy, modalities for pain) • Do not improve function (very low certainty evidence)