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Table 1

Risk of bias of studies investigating non-medical interventions for chronic low back pain

ReferenceRandomization adequate?Allocation concealed?Groups similar at baseline?Patient blinded?Care provider blinded?Outcome assessor blinded?Co-interventions avoided or similar?Compliance acceptable?Drop-out rate described and acceptable?Timing outcome assessment similar?Intention-to-treat analysis?Total score
Exercise
 Alexandre et al. [14]?++−−???+++5
 Bendix et al. [15]+−+−−+++++−7
 Chatzitheodorou et al. [16]a+?+−−????+?3
 Chown et al. [47]+?+−−−?−−+−3
 Critchley et al. [17]a+++−−−??−++5
 Deyo et al. [18]+++−−+++++−8
 Donzelli et al. [19]a???+−+?−?+?3
 Elnaggar et al. [20]+++−−+−−−++6
 Ferreira et al. [21]a+++−−−+++++8
 Frost et al. [106] (1998)+++−−+−++++8
 Galantino et al. [23]+??−?−??−+−2
 Gladwell et al. [24]a??−−−+?+−+−3
 Goldby et al. [25]a+?+−−+?−++?4
 Gudavalli et al. [26]a+++−−+??−++6
 Gur et al. [27]??+−−−??+++4
 Harts et al. [48]+++−−−?+−++6
 Hildebrandt et al. [28]+++−−−+−−++6
 Johannsen et al. [29]−??−−−−−−+−1
 Kankaanpaa et al. [30]+++−−−?+++−6
 Koldas et al. [49]+?+−−−??++?3
 Lewis et al. [31]a+?−−−++++++7
 Machado et al. [32]a+?+−−+?−−++5
 Mannion et al. [33]+++++++++++11
 Marshall and Murphy [34]a??+−−???++−3
 Niemisto et al. [35, 103]+++−−−+++++8
 Risch et al. [36]−−+−−−−−+++4
 Rittweger et al. [37]+++−−−??++−5
 Roche et al. [38]a+?+?−???++?4
 Sherman et al. [39]a+++−−++++++8
 Sjögren et al. [40]a????−?++++?4
 Smeets et al. [41, 104]a+++−−++++++9
 Tekur et al. [50]+++−−−??+??4
 Tritilanunt and Wajanavisit [42]+?+−−−??++−4
 Turner et al. [43]+++−−−−−−+−4
 Williams et al. [44]a+?+−−?+?−+?4
 Yelland et al. [45]+++−−−+++++8
 Yozbatiran et al. [46]??+−−−?++++5
Back schools
 Donzelli et al. [19]a, c???+−+?−?+?3
 Hurri [51]?−+−−−−−+++4
 Keijsers et al. [52]??−−−−−−+−?1
 Klaber Moffet et al. [53]+++−−+−−+++7
 Ribeiro et al. [55]+++−−−−+++−6
 Tavafian et al. [54]a?−+−−?+?+++5
TENS
 Deyo et al. [18]c+++−−+++++−8
 Ghoname et al. [56]b+??+?????+?3
 Grant et al. [57]b+?−−−−+?++?4
 Jarzem et al. [58]a+??+???+?+?4
 Jarzem et al. [58]a+??+?+?+++?6
 Topuz et al. [61]++++?+++−+−8
 Yokoyama et al. [60]b??+?????++?3
Low-level laser
 Djavid et al. [62]++++++?++++10
 Gur et al. [27]c??+−−−??+++4
 Klein and Eek [63]+++++++++++11
 Soriano and Rios [64]?−+++−++−+−6
Patient education
 Goldby et al. [25]c+?+−−+?−++?5
 Hurri [51]c−−+−−−−−+++4
 Moseley et al. [89]??+++???−++5
 Sherman et al. [39]c+++−−++++++9
Massage
 Field et al. [65]a???−−−???+?1
 Franke et al. [66]+−−−−−++++−5
 Hernandez-Reif et al. [67]+?+−???+−+?4
Behavioural treatment
 Altmaier et al. [68]−−+−−−−++−−3
 Buhrman et al. [69]a??+−−−+?++−4
 Bush et al. [70]??++−+??++−5
 Donaldson et al. [71]??−−−−?+++?3
 Haas et al. [72]a??+−−−−?+++4
 Johnson et al. [73]a+−+−−−?−+++5
 Kole-Snijders [74]++++−++−−++8
 Leeuw et al. [86]+++−−−?−+++6
 Magnusson et al. [87]??+−−−???+−2
 McCauley et al. [75]??+−−−?−?+−2
 Newton-John et al. [76]−−+−−−++−+−4
 Nicholas et al. [77]??−?−−++−+−3
 Nicholas et al. [78]??−?−−+?++−3
 Nouwen [79]−−+−−−+++++6
 Van der Roer et al. [88]+++−−−??+++6
 Rose et al. 4780]−−+−−−−−−+−2
 Stuckey et al. [82]??−+−−??−+−2
 Schweikert et al. [81]a+++−−−??-+?4
 Smeets et al. [41]a, c+++−−−+++++8
 Turner [83]−−++−−−−−?−2
 Turner and Clancy [84]−−++−+−−++-5
 Turner et al. [43]c+++−−−−−−+−4
 Turner and Jensen [85]−−++−+−−−+−4
Traction
 Borman et al. [90]??+−?−+−++−4
Multidisciplinary rehabilitation
 Alaranta et al. [91]?−+−−−++++−5
 Bendix et al. [15]c+−+−−+++++−7
 Bendix et al. [92]+−+−−−−−+++5
 Harkapaa et al. [96]?−+−−−−+++−4
 Jäckel et al. [93]?−−−−−−−−+−1
 Kaapa et al. [94]+++−−−??+++6
 Vollenbroek-Hutten et al. [95]+++---+?+++7
+ Fulfils criteria, − did not fulfil criteria, ? unclear whether this item fulfils criteria

aNew studies (not included in Cochrane reviews)

bNot included in the Cochrane review because of control group

cDuplicate; also included in other intervention section