Table 3

Description of studies measuring active range of neck motion

First author, year, designStudy populationTesting circumstancesDeviceComparison of range of motion
Type of neck pain, pain duration, pain intensity, sex (♂,♀), mean age (SD), mean BMI (SD), recruitment, occupationControls’ sex (♂,♀), mean age (SD), mean BMI (SD), recruitment, occupationExaminers professional background, training, blindingInstructions standardised, type of test, training, repeated, restrictions applied*Type, sample rate (Hz), measurement error, LOA, ICC, SEMNeck pain group I, type, degrees (SD)Neck pain group II, type, degrees (SD)Healthy controls, type, degrees (SD)
Armstrong 2005, case controlWAD II and III, 28.5 (19.5) months, NPRS 4.7 (1.6), 8♂, 15♀, 41.2 (11.9), 24.7 (4.7), local newspaper, NR10♂, 13♀, 33.9 (12.1), 23.4 (3.2), local newspaper, NRNR, NR, NRYes, AROM and JPE, NR, NR, sitting, back support, no, to pain limit, NR, blindfolded3-Space Fastrak, 40 Hz, 0,2, NR, > 0,96, NRWAD. F: 34.6 (8.8), E: 48.2 (13.4), LR: 61.0 (9.0), RR: 60.5 (9.3), LLF: 33.9 (7.5), RLF: 33.2 (7.0)HC. F: 37.5 (7.5), E: 60.1(9.7), LR: 69.1 (8.8), RR: 67.4 (8.2), LLF: 37.2 (7.5), RLF: 37.3 (6.8)

Baydal 2011, case controlWAD II and III, > 6 month, < 12 months, NR (NR), 15♂, 15♀, (NR), NR (NR), rehabilitation unit, NR. Simulators, NR (NR), non-symptomatic (NR), 15♂, 14♀, NR (NR), NR (NR), IBV database, NR15♂, 15♀, NR (NR), NR (NR), NR, NRNR, NR, NRYes, repetitive flexion–extension, yes, no, sitting, back support, fixed to the back support, NR, self-selected, noVideo-photogrammetry system, NR, NR, NR, NR, NRWAD. F/E: 90 (22)WAD simulators. F/E:55 (24)bHC. F/E: 119 (17)ac

Cagnie 2007, case controlINP, > 6 months, NR (NR), 0♂, 14♀, 28.3 (5.4), NR (NR), local advertisement, NR. WAD II, > 6 months (NR), NR (NR), 0♂, 16♀, 27.2 (4.8), NR (NR), local advertisement, NR48♂, 48♀, NR (NR), NR (NR), NR, NRNR, NR, NRNR, AROM, yes, yes, sitting with no back support, no, end range, self-selected, noZebris CMS 70P US-based motion analysis system, NR, NR, NR, 0.8 < intra < 0.87, 0.92 < inter < 0.94, 5.47 < intra < 7.88, 4.25 < inter < 5.78WAD. F/E: ≈ 113 (≈ 24), R: ≈ 137 (≈ 24), LF: ≈ 81 (≈ 16)INP. F/E: ≈ 145c (≈ 32), R: ≈ 153 (≈ 20), LF: ≈ 97c (≈ 16)HC. F/E: ≈ 153a (≈ 16), R: ≈ 198ab (≈ 16), LF: ≈ 97 (≈ 16)

Cheng 2009, case controlCNP, 4.4 (2.2) years, NPRS 3.7 (0.8), 6♂, 6♀, 25.4 (2.1), NR (NR), NR, graduated students, teachers, or clinicians7♂, 5♀, 24.9 (1.8), NR (NR), NR, graduated studentsNR, NR, NRNR, neck flexion/extension, yes, NR, sitting, back support, yes, not end range, self-selected, noElectrogoniometer (CXTLA02, Crossbow, Inc., San Jose, CA, USA), NR, 0.1°, NR, NR, NRCNP. F: 43.5 (6.5), E: 42.8 (6.5)HC. F: 44.2 (7.5), E: 47.0 (5.4)

De Pauw 2018, case controlINP, 86.97 (84.88) months, NPRS 2 (2.08), 0♂38♀, 38.00 (1.41), 22.75 (7.77), internet, flyers and posters, NR. WAD, 86.62 (86.66), NPRS 5 (2.70), 0♂35♀, 47.00 (1.11), 22.30 (3.64), internet, flyers and posters, NR0♂ 30♀, 30.45 (1.15), 21.83 (3.81), internet, flyers, and posters, NRNR, NR, NRNR, AROM, NR, yes, sitting, unclear, NR, NR, NRAcumar digital inclinometer, model ACU360; Lafayette Instrument Co, Lafayette, IN, USA, NR, 1°, NR, NR, NRINP, F: 55.09 (10.02), E: 64.15 (14.78), LLF: 36.76 (7.62), RLF: 35.23 (7.62)WAD, F: 44.64 (17.39), E: 51.50 (20.73)c, LLF: 33.06 (12.59), RLF: 31.94 (12.50)cHC, F: 62.96 (8.73)ab, E: 73.89 (13.62)b, LLF: 41.52 (7.21)b, RLF: 40.68 (6.75)ab

Feipel 2006, case controlWAD, 31 (32) months, NR (NR), 11♂, 18♀, 37 (14), NR (NR), NR, NR12♂, 14♀, 35 (11), NR (NR), NR, NRNR, NR, NRYes, ROM (F/E and R) HRE, yes, yes, sitting back support, no, end range, self-selected, yes and no3D electrogoniometer (CA 6000 Spine Motion Analyzer, O.S.I., Union City, CA),100 Hz, NR, NR, NR, NRWAD. F: 54 (11), E: 47 (14)HC. F: 64a (9), E: 56 (13)

Grip 2007, case controlCNP, > 3 months, VAS 49.2(20.8) mm, 7♂, 14♀, 49 (16), NR (NR), rehabilitation clinics and medical centres, NR. WAD I and II, > 3 months, VAS 66.1 (18.8) mm, 5♂, 17♀, 49 (15), NR (NR), rehabilitation clinics and medical centres, NR8♂, 16♀, 50 (18), NR (NR), advertisement, NRResearch assistant, NR, NRYes, AROM, JPE, yes, yes, sitting, NR, no, end range self-selected, eyes closedMyrin device and ProReflex system (Qualisys Medical AB®, Gothenburg, Sweden), 120, 0.8 (1.73), NR, NR, NRCNP. F: 52.0 (17.2), E: 43.6 (18.4), LR: 55.1 (14), RR: 54.6 (14.8)WAD. F: 38.0 (18.4)c, E: 30.0 (19.4)c, LR: 43.1 (15.3) c, RR: 44.1 (12.7)HC. F: 61.4 (12.9)b, E: 59.3 (13.8)ab, LR: 66.8 (9.2)ab, RR: 67.8 (9.1)

Grip 2008, case controlCNP, > 3 months, VAS 49.2 (NR) mm, 7♂, 14♀, 49 (16), NR (NR), rehabilitation clinics and medical centres, NR. WAD I and II, > 3 months, 66.1 (18.8) mm, 5♂, 17♀, 49 (15), NR (NR), rehabilitation clinics and medical centres, NR8♂, 16♀, 50 (18), NR (NR), advertisement, NRNR, NR, NRYes, fast head rotation, yes, yes, sitting, NR, NR, pain limit, fast as possible, noProReflex system (Qualisys Medical AB®, Gothenburg, Sweden), 120, 0.8 (1.73), NR, NR, NRCNP. F: 46.6 (18.0), E: 38.2 (12.3), pooled rotation: 55.7 (16.1)WAD. F: 31.6 (18.1)c, E: 27.0 (14.8)c, pooled rotation: 41.9 (19)cHC. F: 65.3 (10.8)ab, E: 51.2 s (11.4)b, pooled rotation: 71.3 (11.3)ab

Guo 2012, case controlNP, NR (NR), VAS 27 (20) mm, 13♂, 14♀, 24.2 (5.9), NR (NR), NR, NRTotal 13, NR♂, NR♀, 20.9 (1.3), NR (NR), NR, NRNR, NR, NRNR, AROM, NR, NR, sitting, NR, NR, end range, self-selected, NRFastrak, Polhemius, USA, 120, NR, NR, AROM: > 0, 791 conjuct motion: > 0.4, NRNP. F: 59.7 (13.7), E: 70.8 (15.4), LR: 68.1 (9.3), RR: 63.1 (9.5), LLF: 44.4 (10.3), RLF: 46.0 (9.0)HC. F: 62.2 (11.1), E: 79.4 (11.7)a, LR: 69.8 (7.1), RR: 71.2 (6.4)a, LLF: 46.6 (6.0), RLF: 48.6 (6.9)

Law 2013, case controlNP, NR (NR), NR (NR), 9♂, 17♀, 44.52 (7.11), NR (NR), physiotherapy department, NR9♂, 17♀, 45.28 (9.12), NR (NR), physiotherapy department, NRPhysiotherapists, yesYes, AROM, yes, yes, sitting (F, E, LF), prone (R), yes, end range, slow, noElectronic CROM goniometer, on activation, NR, NR, 0.71 < 091, 3.50 (154.72–168.44) < 6.05 (112.11–135.81)NP. F/E: 89.09 (14.38), R: 134.42 (18.91), LF: 69.04 (12.54)HC. F/E: 123.96 (15.12)a, R: 161.58 (9.36)a, LF: 89.19) (13.10)a

Lemmers 2018, case controlNon-specific, NR, 4 (2) NPRS, 16♂19♀, 48 (15), NR, physiotherapy clinic, NR50♂ 50♀, 44 (16), NR, physiotherapy clinic, NRNR, NR, NRYes, AROM, yes, yes, sitting with back support, no, pain limit, self-selected, no‘Flock of Birds electromagnetic tracking system (Ascension Technologies, Shelburne, USA©), no, NR, NR, NR, NR’Non-specific NP, F/E: 94.30 (17.41), R LF: 53.21 (14.44)HC, F/E: 100.48 (18.30), LF: 57.35 (14.81)

Meisingset 2015, case controlNP, > 2 weeks, NPRS 4.6 (1.4), 20♂, 55♀, 43.1 (12.9), 24.9 (4.7), private physiotherapy clinic and specialised neck and back pain clinic at university hospital, NR43♂, 48♀, 40.8 (13.8), 25 (3.5), university hospital, NRPhysiotherapist, well trained, NRUnclear, AROM, JPE, unclear, yes, sitting, back support, fixed to back support, end range, self- selected, yes (JPE test)Electromagnetic motion tracker system (Polhemus, Inc, Colchester, Vermont, USA), 240 Hz, NR, NR, NR, NRNP (adjusted for age and gender). F/E: 110.1 (19.4), R: 128.2 (17.7), LF: 68.1 (15.5)HC (adjusted for age and gender). F/E: 126.2a (19.5), R: 140.7a (17), LF: 72.6a (15.1)

Park 2017, case controlUPNP, > 6 weeks, VAS 60.45 (7.70) mm, 10♂10♀, 23.45 (1.9), NR, students at Yonsei University, NR10♂ 10♀, 23.35 (2.08), NR, students at Yonsei University, NRNR, NR, NRNo, AROM, NR, NR, sitting with back support, yes, pain limit, NR, NRStudents at Yonsei University, Germany), 20, 1°, NR, 0.80-0.90, NRUPNP, F: 51.60 7.49), E: 64.71 (7.10), R non-pain side: 55.31 (9.68), R pain side: 50.79 (10.01), LF non-paid side: 40.45 (4.52), LF pain side: 31.88 6.11)HC, F: 59.73 (7.28)a, E: 72.59 (7.84)a, R non-pain side: 56.63 (7.83)a, R pain side: 58.43 (8.55), LF non-pain side: 44.92 (4.15)LF pain side: 40.11 (5.74)

Prushansky 2006, case controlWAD II and III, > 6 months < 132 months, NR (NR), 47♂, 54♀, 40.3 (10.6), (NR), NR, NR16♂, 59♀, 36.3 (8.9) (8.9), NR (NR), NR, NRNR, NR, NRYes, AROM, NR, yes, NR, NR, pain limit, self-selected, NRZebris CMS 70P system (Zebris Medizintechnik Gmbh, Isny, Germany), NR, NR, NR, NR, NRWAD. F: 30.5 (15.1), E: 28.9 (13.3), LR: 43.1 (16.6), RR: 41.3 (14.3), LLF: 27.1 (9.6), RLF: 25.9 (10.0)HC. F: 58.7 (12.7), E: 64.1 (15.5), LR: 73.9 (10.7), RR: 71.1 (9.3), LLF: 41.9 (8.0), RLF: 43.0 (7.6)

Röijezon 2010, case controlNon-specific neck pain (sample 1), 132 (NR) months, VAS 62 (16) mm, 0♂, 16♀, 48 (7), 26.6 (4.9), local papers, NR. Non-specific neck pain (sample 2), 120 (NR) months, NPRS 5.4 (1.6), 0♂, 102♀, 51 (9), 26.7 (4.7), local papers, NR0♂, 16♀, 45 (10), 23.8 (1.7), local papers, NR 0♂, 33♀, 47 (10), 24.9 (4.1), local papers, NRNR, NR, NRYes, no, fast ROM, yes, yes, sitting, NR, NR, fast as possible, noElectromagnetic tracking system (FASTRAK™, Polhemus Inc, USA), 60 Hz, NR, NR, peak speed: HC 0.75 (0.41–0.91), NP 0.84 (0.58–0.94). ROM: HC 0.64 (0.21–86), NP 0.86 (0.63–0.95), peak speed: HC 33 (25–52), NP 41 (31–64). HC ROM: 4.2 (3.1–6.4), NP 3.8 (2.8–5.9NP. R: 52.7 (9.2)HC. R: 61.5 (8.3)a

Rudolfsson 2012, case controlCNP, 120 (NR) months, NPRS 3.5 (2.0), 0♂, 102♀, 51 (9), 26.7 (4.7), NR, NR0♂, 33♀, 47 a (10), 24.9 (4.1), NR, NRNR, NR, yesYes, F, E and R, NR, yes, sitting with back support, fixed, end range, self-selected, eyes closedFastrak, Polhemus Inc, USA, 60, NR, NR, NR, NRNP. UC F: 32.6 (6.1), UC E: 40.4 (9.2), LC F: 16.0 (5.4), LC E: 3.0 (2.8), R: 115.2 (17.0)HC. UC F:33.9 (6.0), UC E: 50.9 (8.2), LC F: 21.1 (4.5), LC E: 5.4 (4.2), R: 136.2 (15.0)

Rudolfsson 2017, cross-sectionalNon-specific neck pain, 60 (24–124) months, NPRS 4,62 (1,8), 0♂120♀, 47,3 (11,6), 24,7 (4,2), NR, NR0♂ 40♀ 46,9 (11,8), 23,3 (2,8), NR, NRMedical doctor, NR, NRYes, AROM (F/E), natural head posture, NR, yes, sitting, back support, fix to back support, far as possible, NR, NRFASTRAK, Polhemus Inc., Colchester, VT, USA, 40 Hz, NR, NR, NR, NRNP: UC F: 33.7 (7.0). UC E: − 46.0 (10.6). LC F: 11.8 (6.0). LC E: − 1.8 (4.7)HC: UC F: 36.3 (7.8)a. UC E: − 53.3 (9.9). LC F: 16.3 (5.3). LC E: 2.6 (5.9)a

Sarig-Bahat 2010, case controlCNP, 43.4 (5.3), VAS 33 (20.5) mm, 9♂, 16♀, 39.0 (12.7), NR (NR), local physiotherapy clinic, NR11♂, 31♀, 35.3 (12.4), NR (NR), University of Haifa, NRNR, NR, NRYes, AROM, no, yes, sitting, yes, end range, NR, NRFastrak, Polhemus, 60, NR, NR, NR, NRCNP. F: 46.1 (16.4), E: 43.1 (15.0), LR: 59.2 (11.0), RR: 57.5 (12.5)HC. F: 58.4 (11.5), E: 44.3 (10.9), LR: 66.7 (6.6), RR: 66.3 (7.5)

Sjølander 2008, case controlInsidious neck pain, 97 (68) months, VAS 52 (16) mm, 0♂, 9♀, 40 (9), NR (NR), rehabilitation centre, NR. WAD II and III, 76 (84), VAS 45 (19) mm, 2♂, 5♀, 45 (11), NR (NR), rehabilitation centre, NR3♂, 13♀, 41 (9), NR (NR), local community, NRNR, NR, NRYes, AROM in rotation, yes, yes, standing, NA, end range, fast as possible, NRElectromagnetic tracking system, 60, NR, NR, NR, NRInsidious neck pain. LR: 61.8 (10.9), RR: 57.9 (11.0)WAD. LR: 68.5 (12.9), RR: 67.7 (12.1)HC. LR: 71.9 (13), RR: 70.7 (11.2)

Tsang 2013, case controlCNP, 5.13 years, NPRS 38.97/100, 9♂25♀, 38.44 (10.87), 21.77 (3.03), local community, NR9♂ 25♀, 34.35 (9.08), 22.07, local community, NRNR, NR, NRYes, AROM, yes, yes, sitting, NR, no, end range, NR, noFastrak, Polhemus Inc., Colchester, VT, USA, 30, NR, NR, NR, NRCNP. F: ≈ 33 (4), E: ≈ 28 (6), LR: ≈ 57 (8), RR: ≈ 58 (10), LLF: ≈ 25 (8), RLF: ≈ 28 (8)HC. F: ≈ 32 (6), E: ≈ 28 (6), LR: ≈ 61 (10), RR: ≈ 61 (8), LLF: ≈ 25 (6), RLF: ≈ 28 (69)

Vogt 2007, case controlCNP, NR (NR), WAS 37 (8) mm, 6♂, 10♀, 55.8 (2.8), NR (NR), co-operating rehabilitation clinics, NR8♂, 10♀, 56.6 (3.5) (3.5), NR (NR), advertisements, NRNR, NR, NRYes, AROM, yes, yes, sitting, NR, end range, self-selected, NRZebris CMS 70©, Germany, 30, > 0.6 mm, NR, > 0.92 (r = 0.996–0.921; p < 0.001), NRCNP. F: 40.7 (19.9), E: 44.3 (18.4), LR: 52.6 (17.3), RR: 56.6 (18.9), LLF: 25.4 (9.6), RLF: 27.8 (14.0)HC. F: 56.3 (8.5), E: 67.3 (10.2), LR: 75.3 (7.5), RR: 68.6 (6.5), LLF: 35.0 (6.6), RLF:35.1 (6.8)

Waeyaert 2016, case controlCNP,> 3 months, NR (NR), 9♂, 28♀, 45.72 (13.19), NR (NR), NR, NR91♂, 59♀, 40.85 (13.19), NR (NR), NR, NRManual therapists, 2–20 years, yesUnclear, AROM, NR, yes, sitting, NR, NR, withoutcausing discomfort, NR, NRElectromagnetic tracking system (Flock of Birds; Ascension Technologies, Shelburne, VT), NR, NR, NR, NR, NRCNP. F/E: NR (NR), R: NR (NR), LF: 59.28 (15.41)HC. F/E: NR (NR), R: NR (NR), LF: 68.67a (15.17)

Wilke 2016, case controlMyofascial neck pain, NR (NR), NR (NR), 9♂, 13♀, 33.4 (13.9), 22.9 (3.5), clinic for orthopaedic surgery9♂, 13♀, 34.5 (13), 23.8 (3.6), NR, NRNR, NR, NRUnclear, AROM, yes, yes, sitting, NR, NR, NR, NR, NRThree-dimensional, ultrasonic movement analysis system (Zebris CMS 70, Zebris Meditechnic GmbH, Isny, Germany), 30 Hz, > 0.6 mm, NR, 0.86-0.95, NRCNP. F/E: 125.9 (23.2)HC. F/E: 128.2 (20.4)

Woodhouse 2008, case controlWAD I and II, > 6 months, NPRS 5.60 (2.49), 22♂, 34♀, 38.19 (10.8), NR (NR), referred, NR. CNP, > 6 months (NR), NPRS 3.84 (− 1.74), 19♂, 38♀, 43.7 (12.6), NR (NR), physiotherapists and general practitioners, NR29♂, 28♀, 38.2 (10.9), NR (NR), different, NRNR, NR, NoNR, AROM, NR, yes, sitting, NR, end range, NR, eyes closed3-Space Fastrak, 120 Hz, reference, NR, NR, NRWAD. F/E: 81.8 (34.6), R: 106.2 (34.7), LF: 60.9 (18.8)CNP. F/E: 114.0 (20.0)c, R: 133.1 (18.6)c, LF: 72.2 (13.2)cHC. F/E: 134.0 (20.7)ab, R: 151.7 (16.5)ab, LF: 84.9 (13.8)ab
Abbreviations: AROM active range of motion, BMI body mass index, CNP chronic neck pain, F/E flexion/extension, HC healthy controls, HRE head repositioning error, ICC intraclass correlation coefficients, INP idiopathic neck pain, JPE joint positioning error, LF lateral flexion, LLF left lateral flexion, LOA limits of agreement, LR left rotation, NP neck pain, NPRS numeric pain rating scale, NR not reported, R rotation, RLF right lateral flexion, RR right rotation, UPNP unilateral posterior neck pain, SD standard deviation, SEM standard error of measurement, VAS visual analog scale, WAD whiplash-associated disorder

*Is test position in sitting, standing, with back support? Is the test subject fixed to the back support? Test to end range or pain limit? Movement speed self-selected, fast as possible or fixed? Is the test subject blindfolded?

aSignificant difference neck pain group I vs HC (p > 0,05)

bSignificant difference neck pain group II vs HC (p > 0,05)

cSignificant difference neck pain group I vs II (p > 0,05). ≈ Red from a graph