Table 2

Odds of early and long-term opioid use by initial provider

		Early use, OR (95%,CI)	Long-term, OR (95%,CI)
Initial provider	PT (n=3,499)	0.15 (0.13 to 0.17)	0.27 (0.15 to 0.48)
	DC (n=50,014)	0.10 (0.09 to 0.10)	0.22 (0.18 to 0.26)
	Acupuncture (n=1,839)	0.09 (0.07 to 0.12)	0.07 (0.01 to 0.48)
	Ortho (n=9,335)	0.63 (0.60 to 0.67)	1.10 (0.92 to 1.30)
	Emerg Med (n=8,746)	2.66 (2.54 to 2.78)	0.92 (0.77 to 1.10)
	Neurosgn (n=578)	0.58 (0.47 to 0.71)	1.50 (0.88 to 2.58)
	MD other (n=4,422)	0.50 (0.46 to 0.54)	2.03 (1.70 to 2.41)
	Rehab (n=3,246)	0.54 (0.49 to 0.59)	1.78 (1.40 to 2.26)
Age (years)	45–64 vs 18–44	1.07 (1.05 to 1.10)	1.32 (1.19 to 1.46)
	65–74 vs 18–44	0.89 (0.82 to 0.97)	0.79 (0.54 to 1.15)
	75+ vs 18–44	0.80 (0.72 to 0.89)	0.67 (0.45 to 1.00)
Sex/gender	Female vs male	0.83 (0.81 to 0.85)	0.82 (0.76 to 0.89)
Race	Asian vs white	0.49 (0.46 to 0.52)	0.29 (0.20 to 0.42)
	Black vs white	0.90 (0.87 to 0.94)	0.87 (0.76 to 0.99)
	Hispanic vs white	0.79 (0.76 to 0.82)	0.69 (0.59 to 0.81)
	Unknown vs white	0.84 (0.79 to 0.89)	0.65 (0.51 to 0.83)
Region	Midwest vs Northeast	0.78 (0.75 to 0.81)	0.74 (0.64 to 0.87)
	South vs Northeast	1.11 (1.08 to 1.14)	1.22 (1.11 to 1.34)
	West vs Northeast	1.01 (0.97 to 1.04)	1.17 (1.02 to 1.34)
Insurance type	Medicare <65,years vs commercial insurance	0.98 (0.89 to 1.08)	3.77 (3.19 to 4.46)
	Medicare ≥65,years vs commercial insurance	0.98 (0.89 to 1.08)	2.24 (1.54 to 3.26)
Comorbidities	Anxiety	1.05 (1.01 to 1.09)	1.46 (1.30 to 1.63)
	Bipolar disorder	1.11 (1.01 to 1.21)	1.41 (1.13 to 1.76)
	Depression	1.11 (1.07 to 1.15)	1.55 (1.39 to 1.73)
	Dementia	0.80 (0.70 to 0.92)	0.99 (0.73 to 1.36)
	ADHD	0.87 (0.80 to 0.95)	1.00 (0.75 to 1.32)
	Alcohol use disorder	1.08 (0.98 to 1.20)	1.28 (0.98 to 1.66)
	Substance use disorder	1.06 (0.93 to 1.22)	2.34 (1.76 to 3.10)
	Fibromyalgia/chronic pain/fatigue	0.96 (0.92 to 1.01)	1.92 (1.71 to 2.16)
	PTSD	0.84 (0.69 to 1.03)	1.16 (0.77 to 1.77)
	Psychotic disorder	0.86 (0.74 to 0.99)	0.76 (0.55 to 1.05)
	Elixhauser physical	1.07 (1.06 to 1.08)	1.24 (1.21 to 1.27)

The following variables were all included in the regression: age, sex/gender, race/ethnicity, insurance, Elixhauser, which included physical comorbidities and mental health comorbidities. PCP is the reference group (n=114,782); adjusted for race/ethnicity, sex/gender, region and insurance type. Two additional initial providers—other non-MD (eg, physician assistants, advance practice nurses) and radiologist—were included in the analyses but not reported in this table.

ADHD = attention deficit hyperactivity disorder;
DC = chiropractor;
Emerg Med = emergency medicine physician;
MD other = other physician;
Neurosgn = neurosurgeon;
Ortho = orthopaedic surgeon;
PCP = primary care physician;
PT = physical therapy;
PTSD = post-traumatic stress disorder;
Rehab = rehab physician.